First complete ancient Egyptian DNA genome reveals his occupation

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In 1985, geneticists achieved a major archeological breakthrough after they successfully extracted partial DNA from ancient Egyptian skeletal remains. Almost exactly four decades later, researchers have sequenced the first whole genome from an individual who lived amid the civilization’s earliest eras. The findings are detailed in a study published July 2 in the journal Nature.

Egyptologists have spent centuries analyzing mountains of archeological materials spanning thousands of years’ worth of history. But while experts now know a fair amount about ancient Egyptian life, they still understand very little about the population’s genetic makeup. Researchers have genomically analyzed three specimens to date, but in each case, poor DNA preservation resulted in only partial sequences.

A tooth stored in museum archives for over a century has changed that, however. Archeologists initially excavated it (and its owner) around 1902 at Nuwayrat, a village roughly 165 miles south of Cairo. Experts couldn’t immediately glean much from the body, but radiocarbon dating revealed the individual lived between 2855 and 2570 BCE. This placed him between the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods, a time when rulers oversaw the first pyramid construction projects, but before standardized mummification practices. This lack of mummification likely contributed to the DNA’s long-lasting integrity, allowing researchers from the Francis Crick Institute and Liverpool John Moores University in the United Kingdom to finally extract its full genomic information.

Their genetic analysis linked 80 percent of his DNA to North Africa, while the remaining 20 percent traces to the Mesopotamian Fertile Crescent near present-day Iraq. It’s still unclear if most Egyptians at that time shared a similar ancestry. However, the tooth’s dietary chemical signatures indicate the man grew up in Egypt as opposed to migrating there. Further examinations of the overall skeleton also point to a life of hard labor.

Pottery coffin and archaeological remains of the Nuwayrat individual, as discovered in 1902. Courtesy of the Garstang Museum of Archaeology, University of Liverpool. Morez Jacobs, A. et al. Nature (2025)

“The markings on the skeleton are clues to the individual’s life andlifestyle—his seat bones are expanded in size, his arms showed evidence of extensive movement back and forth, and there’s substantial arthritis in just the right foot,” explained Liverpool John Moores University archeologist and study second author Joel Irish.

Irish and colleagues believe the man likely worked as a potter, with the foot arthritis corresponding to the use of a pottery wheel.This technology arrived in Egypt around the same time that he was alive.

“That said, his higher-class burial is not expected for a potter, who would not normally receive such treatment,” added Irish. “Perhaps he was exceptionally skilled or successful [enough] to advance his social status.”

Moving forward, the team hopes that their achievement is only the first of many similar DNA sequencing projects.

“Piecing together all the clues from this individual’s DNA, bones and teeth have allowed us to build a comprehensive picture,” said study first author Adeline Morez Jacobs. “We hope that future DNA samples from ancient Egypt can expand on when precisely this movement from West Asia started.”